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Olaf Wientzek - The European People's Party and the East

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Olaf Wientzek

The European People's Party and the East

Series: Demokratiestudien. Demokratie und Demokratisierung in Theorie und Empirie

Volume 9 2019

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3. The domestic political environment and political parties in Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia S. 33-82

„… 33 3. The domestic political environment and political parties in Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia …” „… institutional and political environment of political parties in Ukraine, Georgia and Moldova and highlight …” „… the first ten years after independence, political parties played only a minor role in the political …”

6. The EPP as a norm promoter S. 149-200

„… of the Maastricht Treaty: “Political parties at European level are important as a factor for …” „… between national parties in the light of a common political orientation. Europarties therefore function …” „… national MPs of its member parties.”518 The Political Assembly is the key instrument for coordination and …”

5. Operationalisation S. 113-148

„… the case the party leadership had already acquired experiences in political parties and/or the …” „… as a relevant explanatory variable if this analysis examined the EPP’s influence on political parties …” „… : Hypothesis 2.1.: The EPP influenced the transformation of political parties if the norm promoter had a high …”

2. Literature Review S. 25-32

„… of its member parties’ political foundations23: Dakowska concludes that in Central and Eastern …” „… Europe and the EU issue in party programmes and the political discourse of parties in the Eastern …” „… focused on the influence of the EPP’s discourse on Ukrainian political parties. Shagina has made a more …”

8. Conclusion S. 347-366

„… transformation processes of political parties under certain conditions. The obstacles for successful and …” „… young or small political parties in their formative years and was rarely sustained over a long period …” „… strongest occurred mostly in parties which eventually had no or a very limited weight in the political …”

7. Influence of the EPP on party transformation in Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia S. 201-346

„… . The same scenario is found on the case of social learning mechanisms: not all political parties in the …” „… clear in practice and clarity was higher for political parties which joined or attempted to join after …” „… accession processes with Ukrainian parties, the waiting periods of political parties and the procedures …”

1. Introduction S. 19-24

„… 19 1. Introduction “(...) political parties created democracy and (...) modern democracy is …” „… institutions can only to a very limited extent focus their support on political parties or party systems.6 …” „… particularly partisan organizations such as political foundations10 or European transnational parties …”

Titelei/Inhaltsverzeichnis S. 1-18

„… Influence of the European People’s Party on the Transformation of Political Parties in Ukraine, Moldova …” „… 25 3. The domestic political environment and political parties in Ukraine, Moldova and Georgia 33 …” „… 3.1 Ukraine 33 3.1.1 Context of party political landscape 33 3.1.2 Political parties 39 …”

9. Bibliography S. 367-398

„… Council of 4 November 2003 on the regulations governing political parties at European level and the rules …” „… ): Against all odds – Aiding political parties in Georgia and Ukraine, Amsterdam University Press. Bader …” „… September 2016) Carothers, Thomas (2006): Confronting the weakest link: Aiding political parties in new …”

4. Theoretical framework - Models of international norm promotion S. 83-112

„… ’ applies a broader definition: Based on rationalist bargaining, the norm provider relies on political …” „… political change (...)”.318 The behavior of targeted actors is driven by the objective to maximize power …” „… meritbased application of conditionality, which is not blurred by political criteria. 338. In order to …”

doi.org/10.5771/9783748904014

Karl-Heinz Nassmacher - The Funding of Party Competition

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Karl-Heinz Nassmacher

The Funding of Party Competition

2009

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Changing roles of political parties: Arrested distribution of power? S. 356-360

„… . Changing roles of political parties: Arrested distribution of power?Changes in the format and …” „… funding of political parties. Although between 1966 and 1983 just one of the two major parties (ÖVP, SPÖ …” „… competitive potential of political parties as there are countries with and without such subsidies in our …”

Bibliography S. 407-450

„… Funding of Political Parties and Candidates in Twenty-Five States. Los Angeles CA: Citizens’ Research …” „… Elections. A Data Book and Election Guide to Public Funding of Political Parties and Candidates in Seventeen …” „… , Maja (eds.) (2003): Funding of Political Parties and Election Cam paigns. Stockholm: International IDEA …”

Index S. 451-467

„… , 394governing parties 196, 198, 242, 257, 260, 277, 280-3, 284-5 see also fairness (of political …” „… funding 317-24– trade unions 246-9income of political parties see party revenueincome pull 145 …” „… kickbacks 279, 280, 281, 282, 283, 288 see also graft (political) Korea 33labour parties 211, 246-9 …”

Access for new parties: Openness of the party system? S. 346-352

„… legal funds may contribute to de-legitimise parties in particular and the democratic political system in …” „… funding on the rise of political parties. Parties in parliament may try to raise the threshold of access …” „… doubtful.Most right wing populist parties, a few of them calling themselves “progressive”, entered the political …”

National, regional and local tiers (levels of party organisation) S. 47-54

„… 47CHAPTER TWOFactual Pattern of (Party) ExpenditureSince the 1970s political parties have published …” „… attempts to establish the factual pattern of spending by political parties by answering two questions …” „… have to be aware that the purpose of political parties is not to operate a business. Thus unfortunately …”

Revenue/ income S. 393-397

„… complexity by describing types. Four types represent the universe of political parties operating in …” „… and parties is an expression of economic and political freedom, not necessarily the consequence of in …” „… , mostly according to party size; preferably with a certain base amount given to all recipient parties.The …”

Different levels of the party organisation (headquarters, branches and chapters) S. 378-387

„… sub-structures within political parties, especially party headquarters and the sub-national levels, measured in …” „… grass-roots seems to be a problem for both major parties in Britain. While “political party headquarters …” „… of ‘permanent campaigns’ grows, … All political parties (from sub-national to national level) set …”

(Campaign) Spending by individual candidates S. 335-341

„… grass-roots democracy is a litmus test for good party government. Among other challenges political parties …” „… supported by party funding? Are there any indicators that an exclusion of parties from political competition …” „… competition between individual partiesIn most democracies one of the major parties will be better off …”

Catch-all parties S. 398-402

„… and mass parties.6 This typology was rooted in a century of political development. Both types of party …” „… parties have sprung up throughout the political science literature. For many years after Kirchheimer’s …” „… other scholars have advanced a uni? ed view regarding the future of political parties: a convergence of …”

Costs of medium sized democracies: Canada, Australia, the Netherlands, Sweden S. 101-105

„… Political Parties (DNPP) of the University of Groningen a wealth of information is available for Dutch …” „… cash economy for the competing parties.An estimate of campaign expenses in 1988 indicated that the …” „… may just suf? ce to cover a major part of the non-accounted political spending by “trade unions …”

Parties and their candidates S. 374-378

„… main German political parties may be seen as consisting of several baronies, …” The sa me applies to …” „… ”, may be their power base.According to a variety of observations, the power within political parties has …” „… parties.A widely accepted hypothesis stipulates that in P.R. systems voters choose parties rather than …”

Institutional fundraising S. 244-254

„… . 7, 42; Sturm 2003, p. 246.55 „Treasury could match gifts to political parties”, in: The Times, 9 …” „… contributions to parties, politicians and factions. Whereas political revenue from in stitutional funding is …” „… campaign chests is overemphasised. Whereas PACs disproportionately support safe winners, political parties …”

Intensified competition S. 164-167

„… importance of televised political advertising easily lends itself to overstatement.”51 In general parties …” „… will be limited to these parties.Since 1984 German parties are obligated by law to publicly report …” „… 164total spending by all German parties. The data processed in detail for the period 1968 to 2002 …”

Skewed competition between individual parties S. 341-346

„… political parties.”47 However, in 2000 this only applied to 14 of the 50 states. Matching funds for U.S …” „… de-legitimise parties in particular and the democratic political system in general. Such hazards are frequently …” „… between individual partiesIn most democracies one of the major parties will be better off ? nancially than …”

Impacts of political funding S. 397-398

„… with a certain base amount given to all recipient parties.The signi? cance of public subsidies can be …” „… tended to become catch-all parties.71. Catch-all partiesFollowing an even more traditional line of …” „… , Japan and the Netherlands it is considerably lower.3. Impacts of political funding 5Following a …”

Professional politics S. 177-183

„… ? ces and staffs of political parties.”104 We have already presented the major types of cost necessary …” „… a political ? eld organisation based on paid labour is a long-time practice of parties in …” „… sub-national headquarters of the major parties.Nevertheless, during the 1970s and 1980s developments in …”

Paid labour S. 60-64

„… types of cost incurred by political parties.B) Types of cost (elements of expenditure)According to books …” „… rare.Ever since political parties began to compete for a mass electorate, they have relied on goods and …” „… services that political parties buy, i.e. acquire in exchange for cash.Ignoring national peculiarities …”

Cartel parties S. 402-406

„… by two novelty seeking scholars.What Katz and Mair discovered is not a new type of political parties …” „… cartel-like manner.2. Cartel partiesIn the 1990s Katz und Mair identi? ed a new type of party and named it the …” „… traditional means of fund-raising.29 Observing this process scholars have concluded that parties operate in a …”

Parliamentary party groups (caucuses) S. 58-60

„… more details on salaries and other types of cost incurred by political parties.B) Types of cost …” „… categories, and even such distinction is rare.Ever since political parties began to compete for a mass …” „… blems of the Third World.”54 Parties have, on occasion, used their foundations as a “dumping ground” for …”

More comprehensive data S. 162-164

„… 1968 to 2002 will be limited to these parties.Since 1984 German parties are obligated by law to …” „… public disclosure, more and more data concerning the costs of political competition is available. Whereas …” „… estimate of total political spending has become more accurate. In sum, 60% of the 1984-88 increase is …”

Contribution to party revenue (Income situation of parties) S. 317-322

„… raise enough funds as the amounts provided by voluntary giving to political parties and candidates do …” „… political parties at the national 146 Pierre/ Svasand/ Widfeldt 2000, p. 15.147 Nassmacher 1992b, p. 475.320 …” „… to political parties in France accounted for half of the national parties’ revenue in the late 1990s …”

Distribution of subsidies S. 314-317

„… contributions) is used for campaign reimbursements to parties in Canada.125 New political groups in France …” „… bution of public funds to political parties is partly based on successful fundraising. About half of the …” „… enough funds as the amounts provided by voluntary giving to political parties and candidates do not suf …”

Areas of interest: issues in political finance S. 19-26

„… politics and argued that the “real market for political parties is de? ned by major investors, who …” „… the political system.13 Until now research including the funding of political parties at the …” „… the funding of parties, campaigns and candidates are of major interest. Such rules, the political …”

Cornerstone of democracy or demand from never-land? S. 193-199

„… . Political parties, like the working class parties of the late 19th century in Europe, are expected to …” „… the funds, which are necessary to operate political competition in a democracy. Whereas parties can be …” „… than those offered by large organisations. Compared to political parties with goals and values, which …”

Problems of public funding S. 292-294

„… well as locally) and its own dayto-day operations.Because political parties perform functions crucial …” „… bet ween the expenses of political parties and the amounts provided by voluntary giving.For all …” „… parties is needed for democracy to en dure. However, quite like all other sources of political funding …”

Definition of the subject: political finance S. 30-34

„… democracy needs rules for political parties, which organise the management of con? icts between freedom and …” „… election times. Political differences between parties include their unequal appeal to voters and donors …” „… . The major actors in this ? eld are the political parties. Thus Alexander Heard was perfectly right in …”

Subsidies-in-kind S. 296-300

„… parties to co-operate voluntarily with political ? nance regulation. Mixed funding of politics and …” „… repealed it. Nowa days the most important campaign support given to political parties and their candidates …” „… political ad vertising by parties is allowed on local television and radio only.43In most European countries …”

Impacts of funding S. 43-46

„… on political parties,”123 an effort has to be made to evaluate the level of subsidisation. The tax …” „… rules enshrined in any political ? nance regime has to be open and fair. Parties in power may frame …” „… competition among parties. The impact of such great potential of political funds in the real world of party …”

Changes of grass-roots linkage via membership dues and small donations S. 363-370

„… ; Smith 2005.365regimes stand out because they de ? ne the rules of the game. Political parties are …” „… parties to follow a similar path of reform. Political ? nance laws may constrain or empower actors of the …” „… party members in particular, and between parties and voters in general. On the other hand, political …”

Sources of revenue S. 40-43

„… approach towards monetary resources for political parties (which is more appropriate in the 1950s than in …” „… unease among the voting public” about the fund ing of political parties from interested money. This …” „… . Public support for parties and candidates is the most important innovation in political ? nance during …”

Membership dues S. 199-215

„… in the funding of political parties and where, furthermore, this source is in decline.33Party members …” „… some parties report consider able ? gures. As one observer has stated, “French political parties are …” „… Netherlands women’s organisations and political parties were the only organisations that declined. Bet ween …”

Assessment of party/ political officeholders (graft from public office) S. 284-288

„… citizenry behind a leader (caudillo), has not only left its mark on the operation of political parties, but …” „… . This creates serious obstacles to exercising any adequate control over the funding of political parties …” „… parliamentarian has no other income.259 On aver age communist parties collected 70 percent of each political …”

Stimulating contributors (tax add-on, tax deduction, and tax credit) S. 225-230

„… generate suf? cient income for modern political parties.” The major reason for this is that “parties cannot …” „… , Pinto-Duschinsky 2001a, p. 10.226any tax bene? t for private donations to political parties.198 Such instruments …” „… registered political parties, including membership fees, up to AUD100 (€65) 207 per ? scal year may be …”

Costs of the biggest democracies: USA, Japan, Germany, Mexico S. 87-96

„… in politics.3 Many approaches seem to be driven by the assumption that political parties spend too …” „… routine and campaign purposes by parties and candi dates at all tiers of various political systems. In …” „… systematically underestimate the actual amount of political spending. This is due to the fact that parties are …”

Moral hazard of democracy? S. 239-244

„… monetary sources of political parties would look at mem bership dues, assessments of of? ce-holders, and …” „… of political funds, or to preserve the independence of politicians and parties, equal opportunities …” „… ambiva lent nature of political donations. Whereas democracy is a political system based on equal …”

Summary of findings for party organisation S. 389-392

„… the ? eld of political fund-raising.In the U.S. the patchwork structure of both major parties has led …” „… . Parties must select candidates for all levels of the political sys tem. This means that enough suitable …” „… 389while offering opportunities to their party activists. Parties in government (mostly in …”

Access to public funding S. 310-314

„… party subsidiesPublic subsidies to political parties are granted and distributed according to statute …” „… registered political parties repre sented by a minimum of two MPs. Since 2002 this includes eight parties …” „… for political parties. One part is distributed among parties, which have polled at least 1 percent of …”

Public funding as a result of government structure S. 326-332

„… legislature introduced public subsidies to political parties and to the press (including the party press …” „… political parties, the Japa nese government sets aside a fund of JPY 250 (€2.00) per citizen from tax …” „… amount, four other parties had to divide among them about one ? fth of the total. The political ? nance …”

Influence of party competition on funding rules S. 324-326

„… , directly or indirectly, old parties (which set the rules) hinder new parties’ access political competition …” „… . The governing parties are especially seen as gatekeepers. Because the political ? nance laws are often …” „… Rica (see Table 8-3).If public subsidies are more important for small parties than they are for major …”

Corporate contributions (money from the business community) S. 260-269

„… order to strengthen the role of the political parties, MPs are allowed only one support group (koenkai …” „… created the need for ? nancial support of political parties, which was matched by the need of bureau crats …” „… from the corporate world have been the most important source of political money. Right-of-centre …”

Party organisation and party penumbra S. 387-389

„… easily be linked to political parties, whereas some PACs form close alliances with parties.119 In 1976 …” „… de facto similarity in the internal distribution of power within the major parties.”114 Power resided …” „… funded and thus gain an advantage in political power. In Germany the parlia mentary complex becomes a …”

Summary of findings for party competition S. 360-362

„… funding of political parties. Although between 1966 and 1983 just one of the two major parties (ÖVP, SPÖ …” „… competitive potential of political parties as there are countries with and without such subsidies in our …” „… chapter has substantiated that state aid for political parties and their candidates has not prevented …”

Developing a case for public funding S. 289-292

„… and Portugal, state aid to political parties has been available from the very beginning (1977), as no …” „… operations.Because political parties perform functions crucial for the political system the question arises, whether …” „… there seems to be no other way to bridge the gap bet ween the expenses of political parties and the …”

Costs of major democracies: Italy, Britain, France, Spain, Poland S. 96-101

„… political outlay. Thus the consolidated spending by Mexico’s local, state and national parties during the …” „… comprehensive ? gure for) all other campaign expenses and local routine spending by political parties is not …” „… Yves-Marie Doublet reports the annual total of public subsidies to political parties (and the party press) as …”

Costs of small democracies: Austria, Switzerland, Israel, Denmark, Ireland S. 105-109

„… information. First, in 1998 the annual public grant to political parties totalled ILS 114 million. Second, on …” „… frequently, because the parties run everyday politics as well as election campaigns. The annual reports ? led …” „… by the Austrian parties include income and expenditure for the federal level only and completely …”

Modes of party competition S. 135-141

„… the major parties will necessarily cause a high level of political spending. A number of separate …” „… dominant party was the only road of access to real political power. For both parties, organisation in the …” „… political leaders of the major parties (federally as well as provincially) is achieved after expensive …”

Desiderata of political finance research S. 26-30

„… changes within political parties. Frequently results were reached by chance; some-44 An early attempt to …” „… 1998.63General research on political parties has widely ignored the provision of ? nancial resources as a …” „… analysis of political parties in the 1950s, he dealt with party funding mostly in passing except for some …”

Cost push or demand pull? S. 183-192

„… amounts of money spent for political purposes (parties, candidates or issues) have gone up considerably …” „… studies of political parties, their activities and their use of political resources. New ways of appealing …” „… increase of public subsidies in 1979) the 1977-80 election cycle provided more money for political parties …”

Organisations of the party penumbra S. 308-310

„… 19th century on news papers owned and operated by political parties were a powerful means to convey …” „… publishing houses directly not channelled via political parties. Italian le gislation provides public …” „… councillors. Besides that they provide political (although not necessarily policy) research for the parties …”

Abuse of public resources S. 276-279

„… groups. In the past, political parties in Western democracies successfully tapped various clienteles for …” „… is hard to observe where close (? nan cial and personal) links between political parties and the …” „… to political parties. In a sense, managers simply “bought” their re-appointment with corporate funds …”

Capital-intensive campaigning vs. labour-intensive party apparatus S. 132-135

„… of? ces of the major parties will necessarily cause a high level of political spending. A number of …” „… , voting system, effective number of parties, one-party cabinets and interest group pluralism are …” „… difference in political tradition is among the potential causes for different levels of political spending …”

Graft from business sources S. 279-284

„… subsidies paid to political parties. In 1988 an esti mate of 12 trillion lire (about €6.2 billion) given as …” „… leader (caudillo), has not only left its mark on the operation of political parties, but also on the way …” „… obstacles to exercising any adequate control over the funding of political parties, be it devoted to …”

Earmarked funds S. 300-302

„… ? nancially. In Canada registered political parties and constituency candidates are entitled to be reimburs ed …” „… support to direct funding of political parties has been dif? cult to travel for modern democracies. In …” „… political parties (or groups) is quite different. See below in this chapter, section D (allocation of …”

Demarcation of the subject of this study: party funding S. 34-37

„… democracy. However, they cannot substitute political parties, which present candidates and mobilise voters …” „… parties and candidates. As a conse quence, numerous political committees have sprung up to collect …” „… political process that in? uence party com petition. Many scholars of democratic politics focus on civil …”

Measurement of and incentives for grass-roots linkage S. 372-374

„… general problem of ? nding an adequate measure of linkage remains unsolved.For political parties, funding …” „… France are examples of the type. Not only “the main German political parties may be seen as consisting of …” „… 372On the contrary, the Central Of? ces of both major parties have turned to a loophole in the new …”

Small donations S. 215-222

„… may be due to the impact of social change and political ? nance regimes.117 Some parties have tried …” „… afford to contribute.”118 However, like membership dues, extramoney for political parties does not spring …” „… entertainment, are not equally prepared to donate to support their democracy including political parties.119 …”

Other goods and services S. 71-73

„… covered for political parties. Political spending is rather incompletely organised by type of cost. Just …” „… service rendered. When applied to political parties, the traditional Anglo-Saxon approach contrasts …” „… the routine operation of political parties, and/ or to provide services for the party leadership …”

Election campaigns (campaign spending) S. 73-79

„… 73that an important area of cost analysis has rarely been covered for political parties. Political …” „… object can be a product, a group of products or a service rendered. When applied to political parties …” „… elections by effective campaigning, to support the routine operation of political parties, and/ or to …”

Returns on investment: dividends and interest (parties as entrepreneurs) S. 274-276

„… frequently.C) Returns on investment: dividends and interest (parties as entrepreneurs)For the average political …” „… . 147/148; Sickinger 1997, pp. 75/76.275Many political parties, mostly in continental Europe, actively run …” „… . In the past, political parties in Western democracies successfully tapped various clienteles for …”

Paid TV advertising S. 167-172

„… as the largest single cost in political campaigns.” The major parties’ nominees spent 44% (Nixon …” „… although paid TV advertising is not available. Canadian parties have framed political ? nance regulation to …” „… speci? c challenge by a signi? cant independent candidate)47 on total political spending is much lower …”

Routines of conflict resolution S. 128-132

„… measurement.28The number of competing parties can in? uence the intensity of political con? ict. Contrasting a …” „… 1283. Routines of con? ict resolutionThe basis of political con? ict and the instruments of …” „… coalition politics is expensive for the taxpayer because small parties demand high prizes at the expense of …”

Unlimited sources of funding S. 141-146

„… subsidies provide additional revenue for political competitors. Parties are unlikely to save such funds in a …” „… , parties could use a vast supply of funds to start or to continue an arms race of political competition …” „… will decrease the outlay of parties for political competition. Another factor that has been mentioned …”

Public disincentives to discourage interested contributions S. 269-272

„… donations would have forced political parties to reject 3,002 donations, which represented 88 percent of the …” „… other new democracies political parties obtained money from abroad during the transition period. In …” „… East Central Euro pean political ? nance, which often overrides direct public funding.172 Thus Poland …”

Titelei/Inhaltsverzeichnis S. 2-14

„… (parties as entrepreneurs) 274D) Party income from political graft 2761. Abuse of public resources 2772 …” „… changing weight of individual parties: Freezing of the party system? 3523. Changing roles of political …” „… of Party CompetitionPolitical Finance in 25 DemocraciesNomosBUT_Nassmacher_4271-7.indd 3 …”

Donations by wealthy individuals (contributions from personal wealth) S. 254-260

„… ) funds have not been “an important source of revenue for Canada’s three largest political parties” during …” „… political parties to raise cash. Certainly, handing out medals and ex tra letters [i.e. titles] is …” „… the corporate world have been the most important source of political money. Right-of-centre parties …”

Approaching members and supporters by direct mailings S. 370-372

„… political parties but also intensi? ed communication between various levels of the party organisation and …” „… for media performance, spin doctors and the like. However, this is not suf? cient. Parties have to be …” „… vital in order to recruit candidates at all levels of the political system (national/ federal, re gional …”

Party spending S. 37-40

„… Pinto-Duschinsky 2002, p. 81.381. Party spendingAlthough modern democracies are run by political parties, the funds …” „… spends: political parties. Yet, what is a party? Parties are multi-facetted types of organisation. The …” „… approaches to spending totals seem to be driven by the assumption that political parties spend too much money …”

Offices (rent of premises etc.) S. 64-66

„… unknown to parties.80 The most advanced political ? nance regimes stipulate that certi? ed accountants …” „… some democracies local of? ces for political parties are rare (e.g. Netherlands, Switzerland), and in …” „… 64averages for individual parties are presented by party families. In general the data ? ts in with …”

Revenue sharing S. 234-238

„… 23431 percent of its non-federal funds in 1992 in direct support of state parties, the …” „… national headquarters have triggered off similar activities in European parties, including equalisation …” „… supporters. Different parties have their own statutes regarding transfer funds to lower levels. In Finland …”

Level of the taxpayers’ contribution S. 322-324

„… 322State aid seems to be a necessity for political parties in new democracies. Public ? nancing of …” „… is almost impossible to calculate how much money the state … spends on political parties”169 we …” „… 1992 the major parties in Spain reported that 74 to 96 percent of their headquarters’ income (excluding …”

Organisation maintenance S. 79-84

„… Political Parties and Candidates (Elections Canada) 1993, pp. 16-18; www.elections.ca (Registered Parties …” „… systems for the parties represented in the national parliament.161 Over decades the “political foundations …” „… maintenanceAll parties fund routine activities, which involve the maintenance of permanent organisations at the …”

Communication S. 66-68

„… (Registered Political Parties Fiscal Period Returns, Table 5)Comment: Since 2001 the data is no longer …” „… “rent and maintenance” for individual parties are available. Compared to staff expenses the cost of …” „… , the information is rather divers. French parties spend less than their British counterparts, major …”

Income from foreign funds S. 272-274

„… individual supporters in the Jewish diaspora, …”190In other new democracies political parties obtained money …” „… (parties as entrepreneurs)For the average political party, the accumulation of pro? t-yielding assets is …” „… companies.203In some cases parties have set up commercial enterprises to serve as a conduit for political …”

Party organisations S. 304-306

„… subsidies to political parties as well. Although each state has its own regulation, in general they are …” „… , Finland and Ireland.In parliamentary political systems with plurality or majority voting, constituency …” „… of 1,672). …. Among candidates of the major parties (3 in 1988, 5 from 1993 to 2000 and 4 since 2004 …”

Fundraising events (social activities) S. 222-224

„… people get together. Political parties organise social events in order to solicit contributions. “While a …” „… 222Parties raise a speci? c form of very stable, most reliable grass-roots ? nancing in Scandinavia …” „… In many countries parties obtain additional funds from various social activities such as events and …”

Means to increase the legitimacy of public subsidies S. 294-296

„… subsidies, political parties and eventually the democratic process. By careless handling of public funds …” „… ? cation of political funding and entices parties to co-operate voluntarily with political ? nance …” „… than their phrasing suggests) that parties can become dependent on the state budget?25 This certainly …”

Room for changing weight of individual parties: Freezing of the party system? S. 352-356

„… aid to political parties all have undergone massive changes in the fragmentation of their party …” „… parties has gone up to 7.9. Political and social cleavages over peace with the Palestinians, immigration …” „… . Changing roles of political parties: Arrested distribution of power?Changes in the format and …”

Reimbursement of costs incurred S. 300

„… ? nancially. In Canada registered political parties and constituency candidates are entitled to be reimburs ed …” „… support to direct funding of political parties has been dif? cult to travel for modern democracies. In …” „… political parties (or groups) is quite different. See below in this chapter, section D (allocation of …”

List of tables and graphs S. 15-16

„… percent of total expenses) 63Table 2-4: Costs of premises for parties in Europe (Britain and France …” „… major Canadian parties (in percent) 67Table 2-6: Costs of communication and publicity for parties in …” „… : Operating expenses of Canadian parties, non-election years 1985-2005 (in million CAD) 79Table 2-10 …”

Publicity S. 68-71

„… Registered Political Parties), October 2000, November 2004, February 2005, July 2007.In Canada, the important …” „… political cost. The Cana da Elections Act of 1974 gives the Chief Electoral Of? cer the mandate to prescribe …” „… latter, however, relates to political publicity.4. PublicityWhen looking for spending on publicity, we …”

Groups of party activists S. 54-56

„… centralisation of power and resources in modern political parties.29 Quite to the contrary, each party boasts a …” „… seem to be neatly balanced giving each tier enough resources for political activity. From 1994 to 2004 …” „… funds within the two major parties in Germany does not support the hypothesis of a general trend towards …”

New technology S. 172-177

„… an explo sion in the costs of political campaigns.”75 Modern campaign technology is helping parties …” „… 1722. New technologyAmong political scientists, it is generally accepted that scienti? c and …” „… intensive than modern campaigning. Parties increasingly substitute those techniques, and “good campaign …”

Party caucuses (parliamentary groups) S. 306-308

„… political parties as well. Although each state has its own regulation, in general they are similar to those …” „… subsidies for the party press. From the 19th century on news papers owned and operated by political parties …” „… at the federal level. Most of the public money given to parties is provided at the sub-national level …”

Party penumbra (ancillary bodies and affiliated organisations) S. 56-58

„… cost centres of political activity may be called af? liated, ancil lary, auxiliary, parallel and …” „… (occasionally stu dents, too) are built into the formal structure of many parties. This pattern dominates in …” „… expenses.46In a much looser fashion, the two major parties in Germany (CDU, SPD) have copied this model of …”

Association quotas S. 230-233

„… the Canadian parties became a political reality due to an innovative combination of public regulation …” „… political contributions is rising slowly.228A comparison of the tax bene? ts offered by various democracies …” „… public in centives. Quite a different approach to public impact on political donations is the idea to …”

Public funding in (comparative) perspective: parties and other organisations S. 332-334

„… ) perspective: parties and other organisations The amounts of public subsidies to political parties are very …” „… scholars start to criticise the amounts of public funds given to political parties they will have to …” „… also occurred to political parties. Not only the organisation gets used to depend on public funding …”

Candidates (for parliament or the presidency) S. 303-304

„… Austria), parties are the relevant political competi tors and thus the major recipients of public …” „… participants of political competition the speci? c recipient varies. Depending on the major institutions of the …” „… political system and speci? c electoral rules this may be a pre-eminent candidate, e.g. for the presidency …”

Energising fundraisers (matching funds) S. 224-225

„… generate suf? cient income for modern political parties.” The major reason for this is that “parties cannot …” „… 224C) Public incentives (for small political contributions)Whenever carefully designed legislation …” „… was passed on the subject of political ? nance, it aimed to redress the imbalance between the …”

Policy development (research and training) S. 84-86

„… for public subsidies. Dutch parties have traditionally made transfer payments to af? liated …” „… heavily subsidised “party academies” serve as training systems for the parties represented in the national …” „… parliament.161 Over decades the “political foundations” in Germany have performed similar functions. Nowadays …”

Interaction of causal factors S. 149-154

„… political competition.D) Interaction of causal factorsAfter testing a variety of factors, which in theory …” „… may in? uence the level of political spend ing, we are now in a position to draw preliminary …” „… countries (as the speci? c element, which either increases or decreases political spending does not occur in …”

List of abbreviations S. 17-18

„… shekelIPS Index of Political Spending (see chapter III)JPY Japanese yenKF Konservative Folkeparti …” „… Political Action Committee (USA)P.C. Progressive Conservatives (Canada), now: CPCPCE Partido Communista de …” „… Espana (Spain)PCF Parti Communiste Français (France)PCI Partido Comunista Italiano (Italy)PDS Partei des …”

Adjustment for election cycle, country size and economic performance S. 109-115

„… million.National and local electioneering by these parties cost IEP 4.3 million for the 1987 parlia mentary …” „… ) Adjustment for election cycle, country size and economic performanceAs expenses by parties and candidates …” „… the level of political expenses must establish an annual average (step 2). This requires data for an …”

Stages of political and economic development S. 121-124

„… local political clubs and charities.” Development of cohesive parties, which began in the late …” „… also reemphasises the need to follow the development of political expenses over time. Can we discover a …” „… democracies? Before we move to the dynamic aspects of political ? nance and a study of time series data,1 we …”

State intervention in the economy S. 146-149

„… party spending; some of them will increase, while others will decrease the outlay of parties for …” „… political competition. Another factor that has been mentioned in scholarly analysis is the interaction …” „… for political purposes … where the extent of govern ment spending and economic regulation is great.”86 …”

Size of the electorate (economies of scale) S. 124-128

„… Germany (both with an interrupted tra dition) do not have extremely high levels of political spending. The …” „… democratisation) reduces the level of political spending. However, various factors can pull the level of party …” „… , parties appealing to a small electorate of 2 million voters can be expected to need (relatively) more …”

General grants S. 302-303

„… countries legislators have abstained from de? ning the purpose because they feel that the items of political …” „… a demarcation line between on-going activities and campaigns cannot be drawn, and Ger man parties …” „… wealth of experience in roughly ? ve decades. Although parties may tailor subsidy pro grammes to suit …”

External influences (electorate and inflation) S. 155-162

„… political purposes has multiplied by a factor of 14.2 Similar trends were documented for Fran ce, Australia …” „… all over Western Europe during the post-war period.”3 In short, political analysts observe a dramatic …” „… increase of political expenditures everywhere. It is not surprising that the U.S. experience seriously in …”

Spending/ expenses S. 393

„… complexity by describing types. Four types represent the universe of political parties operating in …” „… 393CHAPTER ELEVENMoney as a Political Resource (Conclusion)In concluding our study, we will sum up …” „… the major ? ndings and consider ways to improve political analysis. Because the variety of political …”

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Adam M. Silver - Partisanship and Polarization

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Adam M. Silver

Partisanship and Polarization

2022

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Chapter 1: Parties, Platforms, and American Political Development S. 11-26

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Bob S. Hadiwinata, Christoph Schuck - Democracy in Indonesia. The Challenge of Consolidation

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Bob S. Hadiwinata (ed.), Christoph Schuck (ed.)

Democracy in Indonesia. The Challenge of Consolidation

2007

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Yulius P. Hermawan Political Parties and Elections in Post-Authoritarian Indonesia S. 201-219

„… Polit i cal Parties and Elec tions in Post-Authoritarian Indo ne sia Yulius P. Hermawan Intro duc …” „… elec tion strength ens the par ties’ role in the pres i den tial elec tion; polit i cal parties are the …” „… legal con di tion of the for ma tion of par ties. Arti cle 2 of the 1999 law on polit i cal parties …”

Wolfgang Merkel Embedded and Defective Democracies S. 29-65

„… Social and Economic requisities Civil society Stateness Electoral Regime Political rights Civil …” „… .442ff. 38 Le o nardo Morlino. 1998. De moc racy Be tween Con sol i da tion and Cri sis. Parties …” „… example the partial regimes ‘political rights’ and ‘civil rights’ support partial regime ‘democratic …”

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Marcel Alexander Niggli - Right-wing Extremism in Switzerland

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Marcel Alexander Niggli (ed.)

Right-wing Extremism in Switzerland

Series: Studien zur Schweizer Politik

Volume 2 2009

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Thomas Grumke Populist Parties and Political Involvement: European Research and Results S. 68-77

„… 68 5. Populist Parties and Political Involvement: European Research and Results Thomas Grumke In …” „… right-wing populist parties. The rise of these parties has led to the question whether these populist actors …” „… international context of right-wing political activism (see Skenderovic 2001). First, from a historical point …”

Gianni D’Amato, Damir Skenderovic From Outsider to Playmakers: Radical Right-Wing Populist Parties and Swiss Migration Policy S. 78-91

„… the population, such that radical right-wing political parties can then profit politically from …” „… and Guiraudon 1 By »radical right-wing populist parties«, we mean political actors who propound a …” „… political agenda. Over the last 40 years, seven different political parties have elected representatives to …”

Nonna Mayer Right-Wing Extremism and Ethnocentrism in Western Europe S. 113-125

„… political space at the very far right, far away from mainstream conservative parties. It’s even clearer if …” „… ›Explaining Variations in the Success of Extreme-right Parties in Western Europe‹, Comparative Political …” „… ): 73-111. Hug, S. and Schulz, T. 2007 ›Left-right Positions of Political Parties in Switzerland‹, Party …”

Hans-Georg Betz The Swiss Populist Right in the West European Context S. 92-101

„… published in recent years base their empirical findings on a limited number of political parties, which are …” „… SVP’s success (both electoral and political) has made it a model for other right-wing populist parties …” „… compromising its political objectives. It is for this reason that other radical right-wing populist parties …”

Linards Udris, Kurt Imhof, Patrik Ettinger New Chances for Attracting Attention: The Extreme Right and Radical Right in Swiss Public Communication, 1960-2005 S. 39-57

„… , established political parties, and the growing left-wing movement. The orientation crisis was partially …” „… party. By the same token, the political space for radical-right parties that use the same types of …” „… agenda. Political actors from other established parties were eager to distance themselves from the …”

Marc Helbling Citizenship, Right-Wing Populism and the Direct Democratic Dilemma S. 102-112

„… political arenas changes the actors and processes involved. In the public arena political parties get the …” „… many political and judicial debates. This paper tackles the question why direct democratic …” „… , political and cultural elements help us predict the outcome of naturalization policies. In municipalities …”

Philippe Gottraux, Cécile Péchu The Relationship between Values and Right-Wing »Populist« Commitment in Switzerland: Swiss People’s Party Activists S. 58-67

„… political science literature associates the SVP with right-wing populist parties, and even sometimes with …” „… national party on the political scene, and it enjoys a strong position among voters. Moreover, the …” „… extreme rightwing parties, depending on the classification and terminology chosen. Some of its practices …”

Marcel Alexander Niggli The Swiss National Research Programme 40+ »Right-Wing Extremism« S. 11-27

„… political parties and certain leaders, had been marginal in Swiss political culture throughout the post war …” „… , and social ostracism The connections between the political agendas of parties, parliament and …” „… for political organizations, groups and parties, but also for tendencies, movements, and efforts that …”

Damir Skenderovic Organised Right-Wing Extremism in Switzerland: An Overview Since 1945 S. 28-38

„… rightwing populist parties, or participated in specific events or political mobilisation in which radical …” „… conceptions of the political system, as well as anti-egalitarian and anti-pluralist views of society. Since …” „… centreless cellular network of political ideology, organization and activism«. To understand the diversified …”

Martin Schmid, Marco Storni Youth and Unreported Right-Wing Extremist Violence: Quantitative Analyses of Victimization Processes S. 153-169

„… general evaluation of political extremism provided in answer to a parliamentary inquiry (Bundesrat 2004 …” „… , the groups of friends, as well as the underlying convictions about cultural and political matters …” „… to identical, at least with respect to the size of the parties in conflict. A propensity to engage …”

Contributors S. 297-301

„… , Hans-Georg: Dr. Betz is author of several books on the populist right. Trained as a political scientist he …” „… on the Public Sphere and Society at the University of Zurich. His research focuses on political …” „… of Lausanne, Institute of Political and International Studies (IEPI). Recently he has published …”

Heléne Lööw Right-Wing Extremist Perpetrators from an International Perspective S. 170-180

„… focus on the perpetrators, public responses (the legal, social, political and preventative strategies …” „… foreigners to political opponents, members of ethnic and religious minorities, and homosexuals (Schmid and …” „… socialist parties to Christian Identity groups, and even occult groups that promote racist ideologies – the …”

Titelei/Inhaltsverzeichnis S. 1-8

„… , Péchu) 58 5. Populist Parties and Political Involvement: European Research and Results, (Grumke) 68 6 …” „… Extremism in Switzerland: An Overview Since 1945, (Skenderovic) 28 II. Media, populist parties and …” „… . From Outsider to Playmakers: Radical Right-Wing Populist Parties and Swiss Migration Policy, (D’Amato …”

Andreas Beelmann Preventing Right-Wing Extremism: European and International Research S. 252-264

„… being threatened by out-groups, increasing votes for extreme right-wing political parties …” „… violence and to the increasing number of votes given to extreme right-wing political parties. Such …” „… co-operate in facing the realities of multicultural societies, growing political integration within Europe …”

Thomas Busset, Thomas Gander, Pascal Pfister, Raffaele Poli The Football Stadium – A Place Where Right-Wing Extremists Recruit? Case Studies of Three Swiss clubs S. 217-221

„… action, be it violent or not, appears to be definitively against political indoctrination …” „… foothold in the stadiums through the presence of groups whose purpose was political, but the attitudes and …” „… object to fans being instrumentalized for political purposes, which one can call ›self-declared …”

Andreas Zick, Beate Küpper, Anna Klein, Wilhelm Heitmeyer Monitoring Misanthropy. Prospects and Encouraging Results of a Swiss-German Comparison S. 136-145

„… addition, some factors that point to cultural, political and economical causes of prejudices were found …” „… the Eurobarometer are excellently designed crosscultural survey that analyse various political topics …” „… are often influenced by political discourse, as such instruments can be misused in order to identify …”

Sandro Cattacin, Brigitta Gerber, Massimo Sardi, Robert Wegener Measuring Misanthropy and Right-Wing Extremism in Switzerland: Some Insights from an Exploratory Survey S. 126-135

„… political direction as a whole, as it is constituted out of diverse groups, organisations and parties …” „… attitudes alter on a regular basis, often following social and political trends. The scope of such attitudes …” „… evaluates this experience. We also engage in a more political discussion about 1 Such surveys are …”

Saskia Bollin, Corinne Sieber, Nina Studer, Ueli Mäder, Wassilis Kassis Right-Wing Extremist Youth: Motivations for Exiting the Right-Wing Extremist Scene and Clique Structure S. 181-192

„… ? Right-wing extremist groups cultivate specific values and express them in the form of political demands …” „… »external enemies« and that is defined by its political ideology (Studer 2005, 6). As a result …” „… . The age structure is mixed. Young males with good middle-class backgrounds predominate. Political …”

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