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Unlawful Content Online / Chapter 1 - Introduction
Unlawful Content Online / Chapter 1 - Introduction
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31–58
Chapter 1 - Introduction
31–58
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A. General background
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B. Structure
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C. Methodology
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D. Definitions, assumptions and limitations
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1. Definitions
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I. Internet intermediaries – intermediary service providers
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II. Online platforms
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III. Illegal versus unlawful content
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IV. Material content
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V. Unlawful activity and unlawful content/information
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VI. Harmful content
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VII. Platform users
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2. Assumptions
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3. Limitations
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I. Sanctions
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II. Substantive law affecting online platforms
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59–97
Chapter 2 - The emergence of intermediaries on the internet – a socio-technical review
59–97
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A. The early internet
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B. The technical architecture of the internet
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C. Internet intermediaries within the layered internet
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1. A typology of intermediaries
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2. Internet access providers
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3. Search engines
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4. E-commerce platforms
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5. User generated content and social media platforms – the rise of Web 2.0
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6. Sharing economy platforms
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7. Messenger services, cloud platforms and other online intermediaries
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D. Intermediary powerhouses
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1. Multi-sided platforms
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2. The leading players
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I. Google (Alphabet)
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II. Amazon
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III. Facebook
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IV. Apple
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V. Microsoft
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3. From content to infrastructure control
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E. Summary: socio-technical and economic role of internet intermediaries
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98–224
Chapter 3 - Intermediaries and unlawful content – challenges in internet regulation
98–224
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A. The subject matter of internet governance
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1. Infrastructure
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2. Content regulation = intermediary regulation?
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B. The emergence of internet intermediary liability
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1. Justifications for internet intermediary liability in law
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I. Moral justifications
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II. Economic justifications
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2. Primary and secondary liability
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I. Primary liability for intermediaries
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II. Secondary liability
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a. Common law
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b. Civil law jurisdictions
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3. Early case law on internet intermediaries
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I. Case law in the EU
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a. United Kingdom
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b. Germany
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c. France
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d. Italy
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e. Belgium
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II. Case in law in the US
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a. Cubby, Inc v CompuServe, Inc.
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b. Stratton Oakmont v Prodigy Services Co.
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c. Playboy Enterprises, Inc. v Frena
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d. Sega Enterprises, Ltd. v MAPHIA & Religious Technology Center v Netcom
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C. Regulatory Frameworks of internet intermediary liability
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1. US
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I. Communications Decency Act 1996
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II. The Digital Millennium Copyright Act 1998
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III. Trademarks – The Lanham Act
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2. EU
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I. Setting the scene for an intermediary liability framework
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II. The E-Commerce Directive
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a. General principles and scope
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b. The liability (exemptions) of intermediaries
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3. Comparing the EU and US intermediary liability frameworks
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4. Other jurisdictions
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I. Australia
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II. Canada
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III. China
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IV. India
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D. Enforcement challenges in internet intermediary liability
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1. Emerging challenges - EU reviews of the ECD
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I. The 2003 and 2007 ECD evaluations
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II. The 2012 public consultation
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III. Reviews and initiatives under the Digital Single Market policy
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IV. Main legal challenges of the ECD inhibiting enforcement against unlawful content
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2. ECD intermediary liability – the main challenges through case law
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I. The neutrality of internet intermediaries
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a. Search engines
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b. E-commerce marketplaces
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i. National case law
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ii. EU case law
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iii. Application of CJEU rulings
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iv. US developments
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c. UGC platforms and social networks
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i. National case law
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ii. EU case law
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II. The intermediary’s actual knowledge of illegal acts
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a. Defining actual knowledge
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b. Obtaining actual knowledge
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i. Court or authority orders
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ii. Notice-and-Takedown
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iii. Awareness of illegal activity or information
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III. The preventive obligations of intermediaries
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a. National case law
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i. France
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ii. Italy
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iii. Germany
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iv. UK
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b. CJEU and ECtHR case law
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i. L‘Oréal v EBay (C-324/09)
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ii. Scarlet Extended (C-70/10) & Netlog (C-360/10)
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iii. Mc Fadden (C-484/14)
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iv. The ECtHR rulings in Delfi v Estonia & MTE v Hungary
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v. Eva Glawischnig-Piesczek v Facebook Ireland (C18/18)
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3. Summary of legal challenges of the ECD
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I. Summary: The availability of the ECD protections
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II. Summary: The knowledge standard
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III. Summary: Specific versus general monitoring
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225–417
Chapter 4 - Sectoral frameworks and the E-Commerce Directive – the enforcement gaps
225–417
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A. Introduction
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B. Personality rights and public order: defamation, hate speech and terrorist content
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1. Defamation
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I. Defamation online - background
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II. The legal framework of defamation in the EU
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III. Defamation, online intermediaries and the ECD in national law
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a. UK
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b. France
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c. Germany
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d. Differences in assessing the manifestly illegal nature of defamation
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e. Defamation and the interactive, social web
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IV. Summary and outlook
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2. Hate speech
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I. The phenomenon of hate speech on Web 2.0
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II. The legal framework of hate speech
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a. Fundamental rights at stake
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b. EU regulation
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i. The EU Code of Conduct on illegal hate speech online
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ii. The AVMSD and the DSA proposal
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c. Member States
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i. England and Wales
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ii. Germany
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iii. France
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III. Private regulation of hate speech
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IV. Summary and outlook
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3. Terrorist content
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I. Background
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II. Legal framework against terrorism online – EU and Member States
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III. Private regulation of terrorist content and technological developments
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IV. EU regulation
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a. Proposal of a Regulation for preventing terrorist content online
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b. Regulation 2019/1148 on marketing and use of explosives precursors
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V. Summary and outlook
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C. Economic rights: intellectual property
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4. Copyright
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I. Copyright and the information society
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II. International law and EU set-up
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III. Copyright enforcement and online intermediaries
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a. Enforcement at Member State level
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b. Enforcement against IAPs – blocking and filtering injunctions
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c. Content hosting, sharing and the road towards primary liability
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P2P file sharing and hyperlinking
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Search engines, hyperlinking and auto-complete functions
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Content sharing platforms
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IV. Industry developments: enforcement by private actors
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a. Content recognition and identification technologies
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Fingerprinting
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Hashing
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Watermarking
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Metadata analysis
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Predictive analysis
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b. Platform activities addressing copyright infringements – the rise of automated prevention
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V. EU legal initiatives – the Digital Single Market Directive (DSMD)
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VI. Summary and outlook
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5. Trademarks
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I. Trademarks, counterfeiting and e-commerce
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II. EU Trademark protection, its widening scope and the internet
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III. Enforcement: primary infringers or intermediaries with responsibilities?
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a. Online intermediaries as primary infringers
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b. Secondary liability trends and consumer law
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IV. Private enforcement
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V. EU policy development
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a. Memorandum of Understanding on the Sale of Counterfeit Goods over the Internet
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b. Other EU policy initiatives
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VI. Summary and outlook
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D. Product and food safety regulation
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6. Product safety (non-food products)
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I. Background – product safety in e-commerce and online platforms
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II. EU product safety law and e-commerce
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a. The New Approach and the New Legislative Framework
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b. Responsibilities and liabilities of economic actors
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III. Enforcement and e-commerce
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a. Tackling the challenges of enforcement in e-commerce
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b. Online intermediaries and product safety law
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IV. Private enforcement
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V. EU legislative initiatives
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VI. Summary and outlook
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7. Food safety
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I. Background – food in e-commerce and on online platforms
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II. Food safety and its enforcement in EU and national law
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a. EU food safety law – responsible economic actors
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b. Online intermediaries and food safety
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III. Summary and outlook
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E. Summary: Sectoral frameworks and intermediary liability
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1. The multilevel regulatory picture of EU intermediary liability
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2. Summary: Common trends in sectoral online intermediary liabiliy
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418–452
Chapter 5 - Enforcement case studies
418–452
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A. Introduction
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1. Rationale and objectives
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2. Survey structure
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3. Confidentiality
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B. Case study 1: Online market surveillance in product regulation
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1. Overview
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2. Survey results – Online market surveillance - RED and EMC Directives
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I. Section A: Market surveillance and enforcement
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a. Enforcement scope: sector coverage
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b. Enforcement vis-à-vis ISPs
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c. Online market surveillance activity
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d. Online market surveillance resources
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II. Section B: Enforcement activity and the ECD
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a. Use of the ECD by MSAs
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b. The relation between product safety laws and the ECD
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III. Section C: Cooperation with ISPs
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a. Nature of cooperation between MSAs and ISPs
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b. Obstacles to effective surveillance and enforcement
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IV. Section D: Regulatory cooperation between MSAs
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C. Case study 2: Online market surveillance in food safety regulation
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1. Overview
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2. Survey results – Online market surveillance in the area of food safety
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I. Section A: Market surveillance and enforcement
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a. Enforcement scope: sector coverage
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b. Enforcement vis-à-vis ISPs
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c. Online market surveillance activity
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d. Online market surveillance resources
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II. Section B: Enforcement activity and the ECD
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a. Use of the ECD by FSAs
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b. The relation between food safety laws and the ECD
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III. Section C: Cooperation with ISPs
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a. Nature of cooperation between FSAs and ISPs
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b. Obstacles to effective surveillance and enforcement
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IV. Section D: Regulatory cooperation between FSAs
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D. Summary of MSA/FSA case studies
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1. Enforcement hesitation and unclarity over the relevance of the ECD
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2. The technical role and legal classification of online platforms
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3. Product and food safety enforcement expertise as a chance
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4. Horizontal cooperation
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453–539
Chapter 6 - A new framework for online intermediary responsibility
453–539
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A. Intermediary responsibility reform proposals – an overview
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1. Systemic approaches
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2. Procedural approaches
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3. Common and divisive features of current intermediary liability reform proposals
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B. The regulatory choice of a new intermediary responsibility system
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1. The current regulatory choice
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2. Regulatory approaches for the internet
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I. Self and co-regulation on the internet
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a. Self-regulation
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b. Co-regulation
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II. Corporate (social) responsibility for online platforms
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III. Duties of care
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IV. Risk regulation and compliance
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V. Standardisation
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3. Application to a new intermediary responsibility framework
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I. Risks and pitfalls of flexible regulatory tools
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C. Primary and secondary responsibility and the sanctions regime
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D. A co-regulatory duty of care based on harmonised technical standards
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1. Introduction
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2. Changes to the ECD’s online intermediary liability framework
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3. Sectoral flexibility – the harms under a horizontal framework
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4. The duty of care risk management system
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I. Risk assessment
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a. Risk identification
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b. Risk analysis and evaluation
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II. Risk control measures
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a. Risk control: prospective responsibility for empowering safe platform use
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b. Risk control: retrospective responsibility to contain unlawful content
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III. Example of a duty of care standard for economic harms
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5. Transparency and accountability obligations
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I. Transparency
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II. Accountability
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III. Complementary regulatory approaches towards online platforms
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6. The regulatory institution
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7. Brief of evaluation of the Commission’s DSA proposal of December 2020
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540–549
Chapter 7 - Conclusion
540–549
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550–561
ANNEX I – Interview Questionnaire (Model)
550–561
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A. Market surveillance and enforcement
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B. Enforcement activity and the E-Commerce Directive
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C. Cooperation with information service providers
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D. Regulatory Cooperation
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E. Additional data (not part of the interview)
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562–562
ANNEX II – A sectorally adaptable, risk-based duty of care standard (model)
562–562
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563–579
ANNEX III – A duty of care standard for E-Commerce platforms
563–579
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A. Introduction
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1. Principles
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B. Duty of care: risk assessment, prevention and removal
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1. Methodology: risk-based approach
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2. Risk assessment
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I. Harms definition
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II. Risk identification & definition
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III. Risk analysis
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a. Risk drivers
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b. Platform capabilities
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IV. Risk evaluation
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3. Risk control
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C. Duty of care: Notice-and-Takedown
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D. Duty of care: transparency
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1. Terms & Conditions
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2. Transparency reporting
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580–642
Bibliography
580–642
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A. Books, book sections, journal articles and public reports
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B. Blog articles, internet news articles and webpages
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C. Case law
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1. National
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I. France
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II. Germany
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III. Italy
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IV. UK
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V. US
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VI. Other jurisdictions
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2. EU and ECtHR
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I. EU
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II. ECtHR
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D. Statutes & Bills
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643–650
Index
643–650
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Unlawful Content Online , page 31 - 58
Chapter 1 - Introduction
Autoren
Carsten Ullrich
DOI
doi.org/10.5771/9783748927051-31
ISBN print: 978-3-8487-8315-1
ISBN online: 978-3-7489-2705-1
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doi.org/10.5771/9783748927051-31
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