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Data Access, Consumer Interests and Public Welfare / A legal framework for access to data – A competition policy perspective
Data Access, Consumer Interests and Public Welfare / A legal framework for access to data – A competition policy perspective
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Authors
Page
1–6
Titelei/Inhaltsverzeichnis
1–6
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7–10
Special Address of the Federal Minister of Justice and Consumer Protection
Christine Lambrecht
Christine Lambrecht
7–10
Details
11–24
Data access as a means to promote consumer interests and public welfare – An introduction
Josef Drexl
Josef Drexl
11–24
Details
25–154
On the need for additional access rights
25–154
25–68
Enhancing access to and sharing of data: Striking the balance between openness and control over data
Christian Reimsbach-Kounatze
Christian Reimsbach-Kounatze
25–68
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A. Introduction
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B. Data as infrastructural resource and the spillover benefits of its shared access
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I. Data as a non-rivalrous although partially excludable good
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II. Data as a capital good with increasing returns to scale and scope
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III. Data as general-purpose but context-dependent input
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IV. Empirical evidence of the spillover social and economic benefits of data access and sharing
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C. Major data governance challenges of data access and sharing
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I. The loss of control over data, and the risk of violation of privacy and intellectual property rights
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1. Violations of agreed terms and of expectations in data re-use
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2. Loss of control over data and the role of consent
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II. Incentivising data sharing in light of positive externalities and the risk of ‘free riding’
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III. ‘Data ownership’ as an attempt to regain control over data
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1. ‘Ownership’ of personal data
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2. Contractual arrangements and the role of contract guidelines and model contracts for data sharing
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D. Towards a more differentiated data governance approach for data access and sharing
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I. Technological means for re-establishing control over access to data and information
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1. Data access control mechanisms
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a) (Ad hoc) downloads
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b) Application programming interfaces (APIs)
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c) Data sandboxes for trusted access and re-use of sensitive and proprietary data
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2. Confidentiality-enhancing technologies for information access control
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a) Cryptography
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b) De-identification: from anonymisation to pseudonymisation and aggregation
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II. A data taxonomy for disentangling the various interests in data
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1. The overlapping domains of data – reflecting the various stakeholder interests
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2. The manner data originate – reflecting the contribution to data creation
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III. Data commons as arrangements with variable degrees of openness and control
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1. Data commons for the governance of shared resources of common interests
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2. Restricted data-sharing arrangements
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a) Data partnerships
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b) Data for societal objectives
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E. Conclusion
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69–102
Data access, consumer interests and social welfare – An economic perspective on data
Bertin Martens
Bertin Martens
69–102
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A. Introduction
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B. The economic characteristics of data
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I. Data as intermediary input
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II. Data collection has an economic cost
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III. The value of data depends on their use
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IV. Excludability and monopolistic data trade
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V. Data are not a homogeneous product
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VI. Non-rivalry and economies of scope in data re-use
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VII. Economies of scope in data aggregation
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VIII. The social value of data
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C. Platforms and data-driven network effects
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I. Data-driven network effects
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II. The role of platforms in the data economy
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III. Monopolistic market failures in platforms
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D. Other data-driven market failures
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I. Information externalities
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II. Asymmetric information
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III. Missing markets because of high transaction costs and risks
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1. Transaction costs in personal data markets
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2. Transaction costs and lack of transparency in commercial services markets
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3. Risks
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E. Concluding remarks
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103–154
A legal framework for access to data – A competition policy perspective
Heike Schweitzer, Robert Welker
Heike Schweitzer, Robert Welker
103–154
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A. Data access in the digital economy
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B. Private data control versus open access – fundamental choices for the data economy
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I. Private control vs. open access: The basic trade-off
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II. The benefits of open access to public sector data
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III. Private control as the basic paradigm for private sector data
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1. The status quo: Private control through de-facto possession
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2. Limits of the private control approach
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3. The gaps of a private control approach do not justify its renunciation
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4. Addressing the market failures in a private control context: The role of competition law
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C. Access to usage data in three different baseline settings – Variations in the legal framework and in the role of competition policy
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I. Scenario 1: Access to individual level data by data co-generators
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1. The data access scenario
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2. Possible market failures
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3. Legislative reactions
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a) Article 20 GDPR: A mandatory portability right regarding personal data
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b) Electricity Directive: Access to smart meter data
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c) The Payment Service Directive II (PSD2): Access to accounts and account data
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d) Contractual rights to port non-personal data B2C
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4. Competition law
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5. Policy options
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a) Access to individual-level data in B2C settings
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b) Access to individual-level (industrial) data in B2B settings
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6. Conclusions on scenario 1
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II. Scenario 2: Third-party access to bundled individual-level data or aggregated data in aftermarket settings
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1. The data access scenario
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2. Possible market failures
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3. Legislative reactions
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4. Competition law
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5. Policy options: The role of data intermediaries
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III. Scenario 3: Access to data for innovation purposes
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1. The data access scenario
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2. Possible market failures
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3. Competition law
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4. Policy options?
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D. A brief summary
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155–252
The larger legal framework
155–252
155–174
The constitutional framework for data access rights
Thomas Fetzer
Thomas Fetzer
155–174
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A. Introduction
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B. The relevant constitutional standard
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C. Constitutional data access rights?
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I. Access to public sector data
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1. Article 5(1), first sentence, alt. 2 of the Basic Law – freedom of information
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2. Article 2(1) of the Basic Law – general right of personality
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II. Interim result
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D. Constitutional duty to create statutory data access rights?
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I. Right of access to public sector data
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II. Right of access to private data
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III. Interim result
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E. Constitutional limits for data access rights?
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I. Data access rights of the government
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II. Private data access rights
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III. Interim result
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F. Final result
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175–208
The legal framework for access to data from a data protection viewpoint – especially under the GDPR
Indra Spiecker genannt Döhmann
Indra Spiecker genannt Döhmann
175–208
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A. Introduction to data protection’s regulatory impulse
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I. Free data for all?
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II. Data protection as a regulatory regime to link data and decision-making
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III. The lack of control
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IV. The general answer of the GDPR regulatory regime
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B. Prerequisites on Access under Data Protection Law
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I. Personal Data as the Threshold for Application of Data Protection Regimes
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II. Lawfulness of Data Processing and Procedural Requirements in combination
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III. Data Protection for both private and public data processing
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C. Data as a special good and its effect on regulation
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D. Data Access under the GDPR
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I. Access and Data Processing
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II. Right to access of data under the GDPR
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1. Rights to access by the data subject, Article 15 GDPR
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2. Right to data portability, Article 20 GDPR
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III. Right to access of data by others than the data subject
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1. Consent or legal ground as basis for data processing, Article 6 (1) GDPR
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2. Limitation of purpose and extension of purpose
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a) The strict binding of data processing to a specific purpose
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b) Compatible other purposes
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c) Archiving, Research and Statistics as privileged purposes
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3. Freedom of expression, media, press and journalistic purposes, Article 85 (1) GDPR
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4. Transparency and freedom of information, Article 85 (1) GDPR
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E. Guidelines for a regulatory regime in conformance with data protection
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I. Proactive versus reactive regime
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II. Irreversible and uncontrollable consequences versus liability and damages
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III. Specific, controlled, anti-discrimination interests versus overall transparency and access
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F. Conclusion and Outlook
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209–252
The existing European IP rights system and the data economy – An overview with particular focus on data access and portability
Matthias Leistner
Matthias Leistner
209–252
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A. Introduction
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B. IP rights and interoperable formats for data portability
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I. Copyright law: freedom of interfaces and data formats
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II. Patent law: from protection of data formats towards protection of formatted data?
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1. Patents on data encryption and transfer processes, in particular standard-essential patents
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2. Scope of patents concerning formatted data sequences
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III. Trade secrets
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C. The discussion on access to and portability of data and the existing EU IP-rights framework, in particular database sui generis protection and trade secrets
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I. Overview
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II. Access to data, copyright in databases and database sui generis protection – Current problems and the case for immediate reform of the Database Directive
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1. Introduction – impact of European database protection on big data and AI use scenarios
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2. Copyright in database works – limited and balanced approach in the EU
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3. Database sui generis protection right: current problems and immediate need for reform
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a) Condition of protection and legal uncertainty in the area of volunteered and observed data
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b) Scope of protection and problems for access to aggregated data sets
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c) Exceptions to the sui generis right, public sector data and further problems
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4. Summary
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III. Trade secrets protection: A defensive, more flexible hybrid regime which is better equipped for the data economy
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IV. Access to data, sui generis database protection and trade secrets: The perspective of current and future access regimes
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1. Basic consideration: Access to data and use of data
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2. The basic case groups
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3. Details of the interface with IP protection, in particular sui generis protection
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a) Cases that should be excluded from protection
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b) Cases where the incentive rationale of the sui generis protection right has to be taken into account, but has to be balanced with a specific access and use interest
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(1) Overriding interest in access and use
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(2) Access rights for individual ‘lawful customers’ with regard to sensor-produced data of smart devices
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(3) Access and use rights for competitors: compulsory licences in the specific context of the sui generis right and of trade secrets protection
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D. Selected elements of IP rights as building blocks for the regulation of future data markets
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E. Conclusion
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253–438
Taking stock of existing data access regimes
253–438
253–286
Data access rules: The role of contractual unfairness control of (consumer) contracts
Michael Grünberger
Michael Grünberger
253–286
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A. (Responsive) Contract law shall be Queen
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B. The regulatory problem: enabling data access under fair terms
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I. Negative impacts of the status quo
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II. Disadvantages of a purely self-regulatory approach
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III. Putting unfair terms control back on the stage
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C. An (additional) regulatory instrument: unfairness control in B2C and B2B data contracts
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I. The proposition
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1. Unfairness control as a data access rule
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2. Premises
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a) Methodological framework: responsive private law theory
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b) General regulatory framework of the data economy
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c) Specific regulatory framework for contractual data access rules
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II. The benchmark and the knowledge problems
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1. The lack of a statutory default rule
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2. The vocation of our digital age for legal science
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3. Statutory default rules are not required
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4. A procedural model for the unfairness control
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a) Rebuttable presumption of fairness
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b) Role model I: equitable remuneration scheme in copyright law
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c) Procedural requirements
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d) Role model II: the (German) Corporate Governance Code
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D. Problems
Details
I. Privity-of-contract problem
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II. Transnational dimension
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E. Conclusion
Details
287–318
Access to and porting of data under contract law: Consumer protection rules and market-based principles
Axel Metzger
Axel Metzger
287–318
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A. Introduction
Details
B. Consumer protection – Data access and porting under the DCSD
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I. Current state of the DCSD
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II. Access to non-personal data under Article 16(4) DCSD
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III. Comparison of Article 16(4) DCSD and Articles 15, 20 GDPR
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IV. Individual and collective enforcement
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V. Transfer or fiduciary exercise of rights
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C. Data access and porting under general contract law principles
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I. No mandatory access rules in European and German general contract law
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1. European contract law
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2. National contract law – The case of Germany
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II. A case for mandatory access rules in B2B contracts?
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III. Access and porting as default rules for B2B contracts?
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1. Concept and functions of default contract rules
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2. Building blocks from EU instruments, contract law principles and national law
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3. ALI–ELI Principles for a Data Economy
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D. Conclusion
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319–342
Data portability under the GDPR: A blueprint for access rights?
Ruth Janal
Ruth Janal
319–342
Details
A. Introduction
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I. From ownership to access
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II. Overview of Article 20 GDPR
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III. Structure of Arguments
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B. Distinctions between the GDPR setting and a B2B scenario
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I. Personal data and non-personal data
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II. Attribution of data
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1. The GDPR setting
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2. The business setting
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a) Lack of legal attribution
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b) Multi-relational nature of data
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c) The Trade Secrets Directive
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III. Structural power imbalances
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IV. Remuneration for data analysis
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V. Commercial value
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VI. Summary
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C. Transfer of ideas and principles
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I. The data encompassed
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1. Data covered by Article 20 GDPR
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2. Data that might be covered by a business portability right
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a) Beneficiary and addressee
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b) Data provided because of a contract or consent
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c) Observed and inferred data
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d) Preliminary findings
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II. Rights and freedoms of others
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1. Relevant rights and freedoms of others under the GDPR
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2. Balancing of interests under the GDPR
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a) Data rights of third parties
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b) Trade secrets
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3. Duty of care when complying with a portability request
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4. Inferences for a business portability right
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III. Modus operandi
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1. The implications of portability under the GDPR
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2. Data format
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3. Inferences for businesses
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D. Conclusions and recommendations
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343–400
Safeguarding innovation in the framework of sector-specific data access regimes: The case of digital payment services
Jörg Hoffmann
Jörg Hoffmann
343–400
Details
A. Introduction
Details
B. Defining a holistic framework for data access regimes
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I. Data-driven innovation capacities of markets and factual data exclusivity
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1. Applying IP Economics in data access cases – the innovation incentive of factual data exclusivity
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2. Legal Framework of essential facilities – EU competition law, EU utilities market regulation in the telecommunication sector and EU fundamental rights
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II. Industrial policy-driven market regulation and the principle of free market economy – a call for more market-driven innovation
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III. Adverse effects of data sharing for consumer sovereignty, privacy and innovation
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IV. Adverse effects of data sharing on competition and innovation
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C. Evaluation of the data access regimes for digital payment services
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I. Payment initiation services
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1. Overview
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2. Non-market-driven FinTech innovation regulation and structural disadvantages of incumbent banks
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3. Adverse effects on privacy, competition and innovation – the need for new asymmetric regulation
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II. Account information services
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1. Overview
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2. Lack of investment incentives and the need for maintaining market options for incumbent banks
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3. Tackling BigTech banking by introducing new asymmetric regulation
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D. Conclusion
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401–438
Data access rights – A comparative perspective
Louisa Specht-Riemenschneider
Louisa Specht-Riemenschneider
401–438
Details
A. Introduction
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I. From data ownership to data access
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II. Functional taxonomy of data access rights
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B. Course of investigation
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C. National law: Taxonomy of data access rights
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D. Foreign legal systems: Taxonomy of data access rights, comparison with German law
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I. Sectoral data protection regulation
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1. HIPAA
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2. COPPA
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3. CPP
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II. Cross-sectoral data protection regulation
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1. California
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2. New Zealand
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3. Brazil
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4. Japan
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5. India
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6. Philippines
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7. Singapore
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8. Switzerland
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III. Sector specific cross-type of data regulation
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1. CDR Data
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a) Consumer Data
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b) Product Data
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2. A hybrid approach to Data Governance
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a) Accredited persons
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b) Gateways
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IV. Cross-sectoral and cross-type of data regulation
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E. Findings and recommendations
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439–572
Paving the way for future reforms
439–572
439–476
From (horizontal and sectoral) data access solutions towards data governance systems
Wolfgang Kerber
Wolfgang Kerber
439–476
Details
A. Introduction
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B. Horizontal vs. sectoral data access solutions
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I. Horizontal data access solutions
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II. Sectoral data access solutions
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1. Opening of bank account data (PSD2)
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2. Access to data in connected cars
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C. From data access solutions to data governance systems
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D. Data governance systems: Basic approach and instruments
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I. General and specific data governance systems
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II. Market failures and policy objectives
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III. Some instruments for data governance systems
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1. Consumer data rights and data portability
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2. Data trustee solutions
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3. Interoperability and standardisation
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4. Minimum standards for safety, security, and privacy
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E. Perspectives
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477–528
Connected devices – An unfair competition law approach to data access rights of users
Josef Drexl
Josef Drexl
477–528
Details
A. Introduction
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B. General concepts
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I. Connected devices
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II. Data
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III. The user of connected devices
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IV. Data access
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C. Data access rights as an element of data governance
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D. Transformation of the markets
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I. Competition-driven innovation
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II. Transformation of business models and markets
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E. Data access rights as a means to overcome data lock-ins
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F. Alternative legal instruments
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I. The right to portability of personal data pursuant to Article 20 GDPR
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II. Contract law
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III. Competition law
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1. Limitations of current EU competition law
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2. Proposals for reform of German competition law
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3. Discussion on the EU level
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4. Remaining gaps
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IV. Sector-specific data access rights of competitors
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V. Data access and intellectual property
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G. Proposal for an unfair competition law approach to data access
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I. Why unfair competition law?
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II. Legal design of the data access right
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H. Conclusion
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529–572
The law and policy of government access to private sector data (‘B2G data sharing’)
Heiko Richter
Heiko Richter
529–572
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A. Issue
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B. Context and objectives of government access
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I. Development context
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II. Objectives of government access
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III. Public task and examples
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C. Research focuses
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I. Overview
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II. Mandatory access rules
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III. Data of private undertakings without a public link
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IV. Horizontal aspects
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V. Non-personal data
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D. Key questions that access rules should address
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I. Overview
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II. Purpose (what for?)
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III. Beneficiaries (for whom?)
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IV. Obliged parties (against whom?)
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V. Relevant data (what?)
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VI. Modalities of access (how?)
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E. Principles for developing access rules
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I. Function of principles
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II. Principle of justifying statehood
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III. Principle of holistic rules
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IV. Principle of responsibility
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V. Principle of proximity
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VI. Example: German ‘Market Transparency Unit for Fuels’
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F. Towards a horizontal B2G access framework?
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I. Overview
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II. Purpose of a horizontal framework
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III. Possible functions of a horizontal framework
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IV. Substantive issues for a horizontal framework
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V. PSI Directive as a model?
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VI. Conclusion
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G. Recommendations for concrete reforms
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I. Reaching beyond access rules
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II. Reform laws on official statistics
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III. Modify database protection
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IV. Coordinate advancement of re-use law
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V. Strengthen subjective access rights
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H. Outlook
Details
573–574
Contributors
573–574
Details
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Data Access, Consumer Interests and Public Welfare , page 103 - 154
A legal framework for access to data – A competition policy perspective
Autoren
Heike Schweitzer
Robert Welker
DOI
doi.org/10.5771/9783748924999-103
ISBN print: 978-3-8487-8081-5
ISBN online: 978-3-7489-2499-9
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